In Indian mythology, Krishna is a pastoral lord, the young beloved of the gopikas, and the sage advisor of the Pandavas. He is loved and respected by all and accepted in the pantheon as the eighth avatar of Lord Vishnu. By many names is he remembered, Govinda, Jaganatha and Guravayoorappa, among the prominent ones. In his childhood, he performed many miracles, killing demons and sheltering the cowherds from a storm by holding Mount Govardhana over their heads with his finger; he also played numerous childish pranks, such as stealing butter from Yashoda’s pot. As he grew up, he gave up his idyllic pastoral life and turned on his wicked uncle Kamsa. He slew Kamsa, seized the kingdom of Mathur?, and eventually, with his followers, founded a new capital at Dwaraka in Kathiawar (modern-day Gujarat). In the massive Indian epic, the Mahabharata, he appears as the constant friend and advisor of the five Pandavas, and his great sermon of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna before the battle is recited to this day. The Gita is among the greatest ethical texts in human history and has been translated and cited globally.
The 12th century poetic genius Jayadeva’s magnum opus is a beautiful lyrical poem about the love between Radha and Lord Krishna. But he called it Gita Govinda, which literally means “The Song of the Cowherd.” The titles of each of the 12 sargas or cantos in Gita Govinda too, contain 10 different names of Krishna. Even when a canto focuses exclusively on Radha – her predicament, her shifting moods, her conversation with her sakhi (friend), or the sakhi’s description of Radha. Perhaps this is because from Jayadeva’s point of view, Radha’s thoughts and feelings too are suffused with the presence of the God!
Damodara - Krishna’s Name I
The titles of the first and eleventh cantos of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carry the name “Damodara”. It means one whose udaram (abdomen) is tied with a damam (rope). As a naughty little child, Lord Krishna once provoked the anger of his mother Yashoda. She decided to tie a mortar to His body using a rope, in order to keep Him out of mischief. But the rope always fell short, despite adding more pieces, and she was unable to bind Him – until Krishna stopped His divine play and allowed Himself to be imprisoned. Hence the name “Damodara”!
Keshava - Krishna’s Name II
The title of the second canto of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carries the name “Keshava”. It means either “one with luxuriant hair (kesam)” or “one who killed Kesi the demon”. Once, King Kamsa sent a demon named Kesi to kill his nephew Lord Krishna. Kesi took the form of a gigantic horse and entered Vrindavana. As the residents stood terrified seeing the terrible animal, Krishna flung his fist into the horse’s mouth, causing its teeth to fall out. Then, Krishna’s hand began to swell. Kesi, who could no longer breathe, died soon afterwards. Hence Krishna’s name “Keshava”!
Madhusoodana - Krishna’s Name III
The title of the third and fourth cantos of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carry the name “Madhusoodana”. It means “the killer of Madhu”. Madhu and Kaidabha were two demons who stole the Vedas from Lord Brahma and hid them in the ocean. Lord Vishnu took the horse-headed form of Hayagriva, and killed Madhu, and retrieved the Vedas. According to another purana, Madhu, invincible after gaining a boon from Goddess Mahadevi, became vain and attacked Lord Brahma. As vanquishing him was impossible, Brahma sought Lord Vishnu’s help. Vishnu then became Hayagriva and destroyed Madhu. Hence Krishna’s name “Madhusoodana”!
Pundarikaksha - Krishna’s Name IV
The title of the fifth canto of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carries the name “Pundarikaksha”. It is used to describe Lord Vishnu. If we look into the root meaning of the word, we will see that it is a compound word, made up of pundarikam and aksham. Pundarikam means “a lotus flower, especially a white lotus”. Aksham means “eye”. Thus the word Pundarikaksha means “the lotus-eyed one”. It may not be as specific as “Madhusoodana” or “Keshava” or “Damodara” in referring to Vishnu or Krishna but it indicates that Krishna is ethereally handsome in his physical appearance.
Vaikunta - Krishna’s Name V
The title of the sixth canto of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carries the name “Vaikunta”. The first image the word conjures is the abode of Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi. However, what is not known to all is that it is also an epithet of Vishnu, and hence Lord Krishna. Vaikunta was the name of Lord Vishnu’s avatar in Raivata manvantara. That is, Lord Vishnu was manu (variously, the progenitor of humankind, or the First Man or kshatriya ruler) of the fifth among the fourteen antaras [period of time], or the Raivata manvantara, according to Hindu cosmology.
Narayana - Krishna’s Name VI
The title of the seventh canto of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carries the name “Narayana”. As sages, Nara and Narayana are considered earlier incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Once, when they went into deep meditation, Lord Indra, the king of gods, feared they would usurp his throne with their spiritual powers. He sought to distract them with music, dance and apsaras (celestial danseuses). Unfazed, Narayana decided to teach Indra a lesson. He tapped on his thigh (uru), and out sprang an apsara of unmatched beauty, named Urvashi, and Narayana requested that she be given the choicest position in heaven!
Lakshmipati - Krishna’s Name VII
The title of the eighth canto of Gita Govinda carries the name “Lakshmipati”. As Lakshmi denotes “fortune,” “prosperity,” “power,” “beauty,” “success,” and so on, Lord Vishnu or Krishna is the master and granter of all these. Lakshmi also denotes the goddess, one of the “jewels” that emerged from the churning of the Milky Ocean (Ksheera sagaramanthan), and accepted as Lord Vishnu’s consort (pati). Similar names of Lord Vishnu include “Lakshmisha,” “Lakshmikant,” “Lakshminath,” “Lakshmiramana”. Another name used by Jayadeva for “Lakshmi” in Gita Govinda is “Sri”. By analogy, Lord Vishnu is “Sripathi,” “Srinath,” “Sridhar,” “Srikant,” “Srivallabh,” etc.
Mukunda - Krishna’s Name VIII
The title of the ninth canto of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carries the name “Mukunda”. As per one interpretation, Mukunda is one who grants mukti or liberation (from the endless cycle of birth-death-rebirth) and thus bestows ananda or joy. As per another, Mukunda is one – the smile on His face is as radiant and delicate as the kunda (jasmine) flower – who grants mukti. This spiritual dimension of Krishna’s personality is hardly evoked in Gita Govinda, as it is a poem that celebrates the physical love between Radha and Krishna. Some readers, however, interpret it as bridal mysticism.
Chaturbhuja - Krishna’s Name IX
The title of the tenth canto of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carries the name “Chaturbhuja”. Chatur means “four” and bhuja means “arms”. Hence, the word means “the four-armed one”. Lord Krishna was born when his parents – Vasudeva and Devaki – were held in prison by King Kamsa. He appeared in all His celestial magnificence as Lord Vishnu, his four arms holding a conch shell, a disc, a mace, and a lotus flower. The conch shell was called Panchajanya; the disc, Sudarshana; and the mace, Kaumodaki. After requesting Vasudeva to take Him to Gokula, Vishnu became an ordinary infant.
Pitambara - Krishna’s Name X
The title of the twelfth canto of Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda carries the name “Pitambara”. More than any other epithet Pitambara evokes the most famous and iconic image of Lord Krishna – the handsome, dark-skinned god in yellow silk (pita-ambara means “the wearer of yellow robes”); with peacock feathers in His thick, curly tresses; the vanamala (multi-flower and leaf garland) reaching up to His knees; the jewel kaustubha on the neck chain; the flute on His lips; the ultimate lover dancing with numerous beautiful gopis or cowherdesses on moonlit nights on the banks of the Yamuna in Vrindavana.
Strange as though it may seem, until Gita Govinda, none of the texts had detailed the relationship between the Lord and His greatest devotee. Even in Bhagavata Purana, we find no mention of Radha. At best, she is a marginal figure who features in folk songs, with no striking qualities that set her apart. In the critic Sisir Das’s estimate, Jayadeva’s original contribution to the Krishna lore lies in the dexterity with which “he ‘Sanskritized’ Radha and assured her immortality in Indian life and literature.
Radha is introduced to the masses primarily due to the influence of the Gita Govinda. Post the 12th century, she is considered the ideal partner, known for her devotion and undying loyalty towards the celestial being she loves. Some records define her as a young gopika; others say she is the wife of Lord Krishna. Regardless, throughout history, their stories and names are intertwined forever. The gopikas are often mentioned in these tales and are essential background characters, often troubled yet impressed by Lord Krishna’s behaviour. Gopika is a Sanskrit word that means “female cowherd,” “wife of a cowherd,” and “female guardian.” Here, young Krishna earned his reputation as a mischievous prankster. Krishna would play his flute, and the gopikas would come to him and dance around, symbolising his divine charisma; thus, the gopikas became a symbol of suddha bhakti, the highest form of pure faith. The cowherds and verdant landscape of the idyllic Vrindavan are the settings for most of the tale. Located near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, it is a pilgrimage site today.
The true genius of Gita Govinda, the 12th century poet Jayadeva’s celebrated composition, perhaps lies hidden in the sheer simplicity of the story it paints! The plot is neither complex nor convoluted – it depicts the separation and eventual reunion of the eternal lovers, Radha and Lord Krishna. But the further we look, the more the poem reveals its beauty to us! For one, the range of hues in which Jayadeva depicts the character of Radha in Gita Govinda is truly mesmerizing. Through the poem, Radha, the lover, goes through seven stages of transformation – from a shy woman, perfumed and bedecked, awaiting her beloved, to a domineering lover who is at her happiest. Giving performers such a wide palette of emotions to work with, no wonder Gita Govinda is a favoured song among artists and admirers alike!
Radha, the Ashta nayika
To truly appreciate the beauty of Jayadeva’s composition, Gita Govinda, we just have to take a look at the way the 12th century poet expertly presents Radha in his poem. Bharatamuni, widely revered as the father of Indian theatrical art, was a sage of ancient India. He is said to have composed Natyasastra, a treatise on performing arts, sometime between 500 BCE and 500 CE. In it, he describes ashta nayikas or eight stages of a heroine in relation to the hero of the story. Jayadeva skilfully uses this concept in his presentation of Radha, the lover, who goes through seven stages of transformation – from a shy vasakasajja nayika to a domineering swadheena bhartrika nayika!
Radha, the Kalahantaritha Nayika
In his song about the eternal love between Lord Krishna and His beloved, Radha transforms into a kalahantaritha nayika – a heroine who suffers the pangs of separation after she has herself picked a quarrel with her beloved. This brings a new dimension to the character of the heroine. Trapped in such a mood, Jayadeva’s Radha is not a coy and bashful heroine anymore but a wilful person who knows her mind. She is not shy about being assertive, getting herself heard, and her desires being given due respect. Her quarrelsome nature is shown to drive her sakhi (friend) to exasperation, and her Lord to dejection! The sakhi even calls Radha viparita karini (causer of disagreement).
Radha, the Vipralabdha Nayika
One of the many specialities of Jayadeva’s 12th century masterpiece, Gita Govinda, is the depiction of Radha as a character in his poem. She is no typecast heroine, but a woman with real emotions. At times, she is a vipralabdha nayika. Going by the traditional definition, a vipralabdha nayika is a heroine who feels deceived by her beloved. The source of anguish is jealousy. But Jayadeva is a unique poet because he gives this stereotype a twist, thus raising Radha from the level of an ordinary jealous and spiteful woman to a very noble lover. She is aware that Krishna frolics with other gopis (cowherdesses) of Vrindavana but when she remembers the numerous virtues of her Lord, she cannot help loving Him more!
Radha, the Khandita Nayika
Though Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda, is an epic song of love and devotion, anger too finds its place in the poem! There are occasions when Lord Krishna’s beloved Radha gets transformed into a khandita nayika. Why? Because she realizes she is just another woman in Lord Krishna’s life! The khandita nayika is traditionally an enraged heroine, and she is a formidable figure. However, the anger shown by Jayadeva’s Radha never becomes rage or fury. It is a muted display of annoyance or irritation. And even that emotion serves only to make her look more beautiful!
Radha, the Abhisarika Nayika
Love makes one do all sorts of impulsive things! In Jayadeva’s 12th century poem detailing the legendary Radha-Krishna romance, Radha turns from an angry lover to an adventurous one, or an abhisarika nayika, borrowing a term from Bharatamuni’s famed treatise on performing arts, Natyasastra. Sometimes, Jayadeva’s Radha is an active heroine, in the sense that she goes out to meet her beloved or keeps a tryst with him. In traditional plays and poems, the preferred places for such romantic meetings are a field, a ruined temple, a forest, the bank of a river, a garden or even the house of a sakhi or female messenger. One of the favourite haunts of Radha and Krishna, Jayadeva suggests in the poem Gita Govinda, is the bank of the Yamuna on moonlit nights.
Radha, the Swadheena Bhartrika Nayika
Like the mesmerizing colours forming a rainbow, the seven distinct nayika (heroine) stages in Gita Govinda paint for us a vivid portrait of Radha, Lord Krishna’s beloved. Such is the poetic genius of Jayadeva! Another hue of Radha is swadheena bhartrika nayika, the domineering lover. In the company of her beloved, she has achieved her desire and is at her charming best. Of all the ashta nayikas, the swadhina bhartruka nayika is the happiest. The hero agrees with all her wishes and fulfils all her demands. In the last ashtapadi of Gita Govinda, we see Radha asking Krishna to apply kohl in her eyes and tilak on her forehead, rearrange her tresses and all her ornaments. Gone is all her coyness as well as her insecurities. She is confident enough to take on the world!
Radha, the Virahotkanthita Nayika
Distance makes hearts grow fonder. Nothing makes the truth of this adage more obvious than Radha as a Virahotkanthita Nayika in Jayadeva’s beautiful song of love and devotion, Gita Govinda! This 12th century masterpiece revolves around the separation and eventual reunion of the eternal lovers, Radha and Lord Krishna. As Radha waits anxiously for her Lord, separation makes her love more intense, memories more painful, and expectations more colourful. Jayadeva exploits the full potential of this phase of love called vipralambha sringara, by making the heroine of his poem a lost and wandering figure. The Virahotkanthita Nayika is perhaps the most poetic and popular figure in all literature, and Radha in Gita Govinda is no exception to this rule!
Radha, the Vasakasajja Nayika
What make Jayadeva, the 12th century poet, and Gita Govinda, his composition celebrating Radha-Krishna love, so popular among experts in the performing arts? The way Jayadeva dexterously uses Bharatamuni’s Ashta Nayika concept to create a range of hues for his character, Radha, the lover! The first among Radha’s seven stages of transformation is vasakasajja nayika, a woman readies herself and her house to receive her lover. Vasaka means “perfume”. By extension, it suggests the heroine making herself and her abode fragrant, attractive and inviting. She is excited and impatient, full of delight and eager to please. Jayadeva’s Radha yearns to see her lover, weaves lotus stalks together to make bangles, and decorates her bower in the hope that Krishna will find the beauty appealing. In the madness of separation, she even dresses herself like her beloved!
The sakhi or friend is the mediator who plays a multitude of roles in the Gita Govinda. She conveys Radha’s emotions to Lord Krishna, counsels Radha when the latter is on the verge of fury, and generally acts as a soothing balm throughout the series. She is both an advocate of the importance of choosing the central path and her actions are those that one expects from a true friend.
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